The concept of “landscape” has evolved over the centuries, from an organized agricultural space to an aesthetic representation of nature. In Crete, the landscape is inextricably linked with the coastal zone, which is threatened by erosion, putting settlements and vital activities at risk.
In Greece, the coastline and the public coastal space interact, creating a dynamic environment with rich biodiversity and human activity. The “seashore” (aigialos), legally defined since 1837, constitutes the zone of the coast covered by waves at their maximum strength. The 2001 legislation defined the concept of the “old seashore,” a stretch that has shifted towards the sea and is considered state private property, raising debates over public access.
The “beach” is defined as a protected zone up to 50 meters from the coast, regulated on a case-by-case basis to balance development and environmental protection. Despite the recognition of the ecological role of the “old seashore,” the legal definition of the coastline has remained unchanged since 2001, requiring a new approach for the sustainable management of coastal areas.
Erosion is a phenomenon with the ability to intervene in the landscape, affecting its morphology through agents such as wind or water.
COASTAL EROSION
Coastal erosion involves the retreat of the coastline, either due to natural processes (tectonic changes, climate change) or human interventions (dams, engineering works). It is a dynamic geological process that affects the formation of the coastal landscape, with rates ranging from extremely slow to abrupt and episodic.
The rapid manifestation of this phenomenon on a human timescale creates significant social and economic problems, such as land loss, destruction of infrastructure, and degradation of the tourism industry due to the disappearance of beaches.
Coastal erosion affects all Mediterranean countries, with one-third of Europe’s coastline located in Greece.
28.6% of Greece’s coastal zones are under erosion.
Approximately 4.2% are covered by protective measures, while 1.1% of the coastline continues to erode despite these measures (Alexandrakis et al., 2013).
Greece has the longest coastline in the Mediterranean. Although erosion is evident on many of Greece’s popular beaches, local authorities have not recognized the full extent of the problem, which, if left unaddressed, could threaten the sustainability of many coastal areas.
CAUSES
The causes of erosion range from natural to human-induced. Natural causes include geomorphology, lithology, tectonics, oceanography, and climate. Climate change also contributes to coastal impacts, such as rising sea levels and marine storms. Human-induced causes can be indirect (river dams, over-extraction of groundwater) or direct (local human interventions such as coastal urban development or removal of natural materials from beaches).
Maps in images i and ii show the classification of the Greek and Cretan coastlines, respectively, regarding erosion (stable–advancing–retreating).
Estimated retreat of characteristic coastal zones of Crete due to erosion.
HUMAN-INDUCED CAUSES OF EROSION
Human activity causes erosion both directly and indirectly by disturbing the natural balance of the soil. Uncontrolled interventions affect the coastal zone, accelerating the loss of land and infrastructure.
Climate change intensifies the phenomenon through sea-level rise, particularly threatening beaches, which are a key economic resource for Mediterranean countries. Studies in eastern Crete confirm the need for sustainable management of coastal zones, as beaches are vital for tourism and are subject to complex processes that affect their morphology.A 2013 study by the Technical University of Crete and the University of Southern California recorded the first semi-quantitative observations of the coastline in Greece, focusing on the Lasithi region. Using aerial photographs, satellite images, and field measurements, 200 kilometers of coastline were analyzed, identifying 25 vulnerable areas.
Over the past 50 years, the coastline has been retreating at a rate of 0.5 m/year, with increased intensity over the last two decades. The main causes of erosion include uncontrolled urbanization, sand extraction, inadequate construction planning, and negligence in coastal protection. The lack of organized spatial planning has emerged as a key factor in worsening the phenomenon.
Beaches often host complex ecosystems with high biodiversity. When beaches erode, the available ecosystem space shrinks. This coastal “compression” can affect biodiversity to the point of extinction.
Beyond environmental concerns, erosion also impacts local communities socially and economically. In August 2013, the tourism industry of Crete generated over 600 million euros in revenue, approximately one-quarter of Greece’s total tourism income for that month. Given that over 85% of Crete’s tourism revenue is generated during the summer, when coastal waters are warm and calm and most visitor activities are concentrated along the coasts, it can be inferred that about 90% of tourism activities are linked to the beaches.
Three main factors play a decisive role in the occurrence of erosion, specifically human-induced erosion: land use, road networks, and tourism. These are key elements in spatial planning studies, as they represent sources of anthropogenic pressure on vulnerable environments such as coastal zones.
LAND USE
Implementing measures to address the impacts of coastal erosion and climate change is closely linked to spatial planning decisions. Regarding Crete, the only legally established and revised spatial planning framework to date, which provides directions affecting coastal areas, is the Regional Spatial Plan (RSP) of Crete (Government Gazette 2017). The significance of current and future land uses, as well as their environmental impacts—especially the interaction between land and sea, i.e., the zone affected by erosion—is considered in the processes of managing and planning marine and coastal areas.
Marine uses that both affect and are affected by coastal erosion include transportation and connectivity infrastructure, resource extraction, natural and cultural environment uses, and military uses.
A key prerequisite for a comprehensive spatial planning proposal in Crete is making decisions related to the coastal area.
For proper management of coastal land uses, both terrestrial and marine uses must be studied, and conclusions drawn regarding their compatibility. These uses, considering the phenomenon of coastal erosion along the coasts, are categorized, according to a study on coastal zones and marine spatial planning (N. Rembis, G. Tsilimingas, G. Pavlogeorgatos), as compatible, incompatible, and conditionally compatible. This classification is not only a significant step toward integrated management of marine and terrestrial areas but also indicates the presence of uses that endanger existing marine environments.
Being among the oldest and least maintained networks, Greece’s road system is one of the least safe in Europe, with the most degraded sections located on the islands. In Crete, there is the issue of its proximity to the critical zone of the coastal area.
TOURISM
Tourism is a key pillar of the country’s economic development, which is growing dynamically. It contributes to improving living standards, creating new jobs, encouraging new investments, and developing new infrastructure, among other benefits. Many governments use tourism as a means of economic and social development (Vaughan, Andriotis & Wilkes 2000; Andriotis 2001).
On the other hand, besides positive outcomes, tourism can negatively impact host destinations in several ways, such as: mimicking various (mass) tourism models without studies proving the local capacity to sustain them, commodification of human relationships, transformation of areas of notable natural beauty into overcrowded urban zones, environmental pollution, and landscape degradation.
In Greece, approximately 60–65% of tourism concerns the islands, and over 80–85% involves coastal areas overall. It is evident that environmental changes due to climate change will negatively affect the tourism sector through phenomena such as sea-level rise, increasing temperatures, water scarcity, extreme weather events, and coastal erosion. The impacts of coastal erosion on tourism are twofold, affecting both the attractiveness of the destination and the reliability of tourist facilities.
CONCLUSIONS
Coastal erosion represents a complex challenge with significant impacts on the environment, society, and economy of Crete. The continuous retreat of the coastline threatens not only valuable ecosystems but also critical human activities, primarily tourism — one of the main pillars of the local and national economy.
The causes of the phenomenon are both natural and anthropogenic, with spatial planning, unregulated urban and tourism development, and the lack of integrated management exacerbating the situation. Furthermore, the inability to adequately protect coastal roads and the lack of coordination in land use intensify pressures on the coastal landscape.
Addressing erosion cannot be limited to isolated engineering projects. A comprehensive spatial and environmental planning approach is required, taking into account the carrying capacity of the areas, existing land uses, ecological balances, and the impacts of climate change. At the same time, raising public awareness and integrating the issue into education are essential to form a strong collective front for protection.
Only through cooperation among scientific institutions, local authorities, and the state, aiming for sustainable management of coastal zones, can the future of Crete’s coasts be safeguarded, preserving the island’s irreplaceable natural and cultural wealth.
